From ancient India to British rule: The 2000-year journey of the Indian map

India, Bharat, Aryavratha, or Hindustan — the geographical boundaries of this vast nation have evolved over centuries. Different dynasties ruled the land from the first millennium until the arrival of the British, who began surveying the boundaries of India and shaped it into the map we commonly refer to today.
The map we see today first took form during the partition plan by the British, who laid the foundation of modern India by separating the lands of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, and the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) in the west, while partitioning Bengal in the east.
A map of India today not only delineates states and territories but echoes the nation’s complex history and diverse geography.
An exact map of ancient India is hard to trace, and the possibilities are nil due to the absence of any maps. However, the detailing of boundaries through edicts, paintings, and written texts gives us an overview of how the subcontinent must have looked back then.
Way back, the boundaries of the Indian subcontinent can be traced through archaeological remains. The Edicts of Ashoka were collected from the cold regions of Afghanistan, which is evident enough to prove the zenith of the Mauryan Empire under the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya.
In the heart of ancient India, the Udayagiri wall stands as a demonstration of the Gupta Empire’s artistry around 400 CE.

Udaygiri Caves (Image: Wikimedia Commons)

This remarkable sculpture captures the sacred union of the Ganges and Yamuna, intertwining their waters in a timeless dance. It serves as one of the earliest maps, intricately carved in stone, reflecting the spiritual geography of the time and the reverence for these life-giving rivers.
In the realm of Greek cartography, India first emerged as a distant land at the eastern edge of Asia, noted by Hecataeus of Miletus in the 5th century BCE.
However, the horizon expanded with the conquests of Alexander the Great, granting the 3rd-century BCE geographer Eratosthenes a clearer vision of India’s vastness and location.
By the 1st century, the western coast of India became familiar to Hellenistic scholars, who documented it in texts like the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Marinus and Ptolemy ventured into the mysteries of the Indian Ocean, mistakenly envisioning it as a mere sea, while their perceptions of Taprobana (Sri Lanka) loomed excessively large, and the Indian peninsula shrank on their maps.
Yet, the heart of the land remained largely uncharted, veiled in the unknown.

Map of Asia as per the Portuguese (Image: Wikimedia Commons)

The 8th-century poet Bhavabhuti alluded to vibrant paintings that captured geographical realms, while mediaeval scholars meticulously documented land grants to Brahman priests, revealing a profound understanding of their terrain.
In the 9th century, Islamic geographers, under the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma’mun, redefined the Indian Ocean’s identity, opening its waters to the world. The Persian polymath Al-Biruni further enhanced this knowledge, mapping cities and exploring the very geology of the land.
As the centuries progressed, the works of scholars like Muhammad al-Idrisi and Francesco Lorenzo Pullè echoed this tradition, laying the foundations for navigational charts that would guide explorers like Vasco da Gama to the shores of India, forever altering the cartographic landscape.
The map of India under the Mauryan dynasty tells a story of immense ambition and unity.
Beginning with Chandragupta Maurya, who, under the guidance of his mentor Chanakya, wove together lands from the snowy Hindu Kush in the northwest to the humid plains of Bengal in the east, the Mauryan Empire grew into a powerful symbol of early Indian unity.
When his grandson Ashoka ascended the throne, he expanded this reach even further, claiming almost the entire Indian subcontinent, leaving out only a sliver of the southern tip.
Around 600 years after the reign of Ashoka the Great, India was profoundly shaped by the indigenous Gupta Empire, widely recognised as a Golden Age under Gupta rulers. The Gupta Empire encompassed much of the Indian subcontinent, similar to the Mauryan rulers.
Chandragupta I is regarded as the founder of this dynasty, while other notable rulers include Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, and Skandagupta. The Gupta rulers faced invasions from the Huns of Central Asia, which ultimately contributed to the empire’s decline.
This era also marked an early form of mapping, as seen through detailed records by ancient scholars and travellers.
This was a time when India, after the fall of the Gupta Empire, remained in chaos, with separate powers emerging to assert their dominance. During this period, the western boundaries of India were invaded by the Caliphate of Persia and later by Afghans and Central Asians.
The famous Tripartite struggle in the north shrank the boundaries from the Hindukush to the lower parts of Punjab, which became the boundary of the Pratiharas in the north.
Major dynasties ruling the south at the time included the Pandyas, Cheras, and Pallavas, who remained unaffected by the political upheavals in the majoritarian lands.
The emergence of Rajput forces, such as the Chauhans of Ajmer and Delhi, Solankis of Gujarat, Tomars of Delhi, and Gahadvals of Kannauj, was also notable during this period.
The Ain-e-Akbari, crafted in the late 16th century, offers rich cartographic insights, referencing earlier Indian traditions.
European explorers like Jan Huygen van Linschoten also contributed significantly to this evolving map of India, refining navigational charts with intricate geographic details. His Itinerario, published in 1596, provided Europe’s first detailed visual accounts of voyages to the East Indies.
Innovations during the Mughal era included the creation of seamless hollow celestial globes, pioneered by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in Kashmir around 998 AH (1589–90 CE). This technique, once deemed impossible, showcased the advanced metallurgical skills of Mughal artisans.
As the Mughal Empire crumbled, the British emerged as architects of a new Indian map, redefining its contours with imperial ambition. This cartographic transformation was more than mere lines on paper; it reflected a complex tapestry of power and resistance.
British officials meticulously surveyed the land, merging strategic interests with local realities. Their maps, often adorned with colonial pride, overlooked the vibrant cultures and histories that thrived beyond their borders.
The once-fluid boundaries solidified into rigid divisions, laying the groundwork for future conflicts.
Yet, amid this imposed order, the spirit of India persisted like an indomitable force that would eventually reclaim its identity, transcending the confines drawn by foreign hands. This era marked the beginning of a relentless journey toward self-definition and autonomy.

Indian map under Britishers in the 19th century CE (Image: Wikimedia Commons)

The map of modern India is a product of centuries of history. Five hundred sixty-five princely states and the United Provinces were unified to give a new definition to the Indian map that we see today.
During British colonial rule, the borders of India were redrawn to meet administrative needs, leading to the integration of various princely states into British India in the 19th century. This integration helped create a more unified geographical identity.

Map of India in the first half of 20th century (Image: Wikimedia Commons)

After gaining independence in 1947, India underwent significant territorial changes, resulting in the establishment of the current states and union territories, transforming the map into the format we are familiar with today.